Indium (pronounced /ˈɪndiəm/, IN-dee-əm) is a chemical element A chemical element is a pure chemical substance consisting of one type of atom distinguished by its atomic number, which is the number of protons in its nucleus. The term is also used to refer to a pure chemical substance composed of atoms with the same number of protons. Common examples of elements are iron, copper, silver, gold, hydrogen, carbon, with chemical symbol Chemical symbols may also be modified by the use of superscripts or subscripts to show a specific isotope of an atom. Additionally superscripts may be used to indicate the ionization or oxidation state of an element In and atomic number In chemistry and physics, the atomic number is the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom and therefore identical to the charge number of the nucleus. It is conventionally represented by the symbol Z. The atomic number uniquely identifies a chemical element. In an atom of neutral charge, the atomic number is also equal to the number of 49. This rare, very soft, malleable and easily fusible A fusible alloy is a metal alloy capable of being easily fused, i.e. easily meltable, at relatively low temperatures. Fusible alloys are commonly, not necessarily, eutectic alloys post-transition metal In chemistry, the term post-transition metal is used to describe the category of metallic elements to the right of the transition elements on the periodic table. IUPAC defines "transition elements" as either the elements in groups 3–11 or the elements in groups 3–12. According to the first definition, post-transition metals include is chemically similar to aluminium Aluminium (UK: /ˌæljʉˈmɪniəm/ AL-yew-MIN-ee-əm) or aluminum (US: /əˈluːmɨnəm/ ( listen) ə-LOO-mi-nəm) is a silvery white member of the boron group of chemical elements. It has the symbol Al and its atomic number is 13. It is not soluble in water under normal circumstances. Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the Earth's crust, or gallium Gallium is a chemical element that has the symbol Ga and atomic number 31. Elemental gallium does not occur in nature, but as the gallium(III) salt in trace amounts in bauxite and zinc ores. A soft silvery metallic poor metal, elemental gallium is a brittle solid at low temperatures. As it liquefies slightly above room temperature, it will melt in. Zinc ores are the primary source of indium. It is named for the indigo blue line in its spectrum that was the first indication of its existence in ores, as a new and unknown element.

Indium's current primary application is to form transparent electrodes from indium tin oxide Indium tin oxide is a solid solution of indium(III) oxide (In2O3) and tin(IV) oxide (SnO2), typically 90% In2O3, 10% SnO2 by weight. It is transparent and colorless in thin layers while in bulk form it is yellowish to grey. In the infrared region of the spectrum it is a metal-like mirror in liquid crystal displays and touchscreens A touchscreen is an electronic visual display that can detect the presence and location of a touch within the display area. The term generally refers to touching the display of the device with a finger or hand. Touchscreens can also sense other passive objects, such as a stylus. However, if the object sensed is active, as with a light pen, the, and this use largely determines its global mining production. It is widely used in thin-films to form lubricated layers (during World War II Albania · Australia · Austria · Azerbaijan · Belarus · Belgium · Brazil · Bulgaria · Burma · Cambodia · Canada · Ceylon (Sri Lanka) · Channel Islands · China · Czechoslovakia · Denmark · Dutch East Indies · Egypt · Estonia · Finland · France · Germany · Gibraltar · Greece · Greenland · Hong Kong · Hungary · Iceland · it was widely used to coat bearings in high-performance aircraft An aircraft is a vehicle which is able to fly by being supported by the air, or in general, the atmosphere of a planet. An aircraft counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines). It is also used for making particularly low melting point alloys, and is a component in some lead-free solders.

Radioactive indium-111 is used in indium leukocyte imaging, a nuclear medicine Nuclear medicine is a branch or specialty of medicine and medical imaging that uses radioactive isotopes and relies on the process of radioactive decay in the diagnosis and treatment of disease test which uses the isotope as an imaging agent to follow the movement of leukocytes White blood cells , or leukocytes (also spelled "leucocytes"), are cells of the immune system involved in defending the body against both infectious disease and foreign materials. Five different and diverse types of leukocytes exist, but they are all produced and derived from a multipotent cell in the bone marrow known as a hematopoietic in the body.

Characteristics

Indium is a very soft, silvery-white White is a color, the perception which is evoked by light that stimulates all three types of color sensitive cone cells in the human eye in nearly equal amounts and with high brightness compared to the surroundings. A white visual stimulation will be void of hue and grayness, relatively rare true metal A metal is a chemical element that is a good conductor of both electricity and heat and forms cations and ionic bonds with non-metals. In chemistry, a metal is an element, compound, or alloy characterized by high electrical conductivity. In a metal, atoms readily lose electrons to form positive ions (cations). Those ions are surrounded by with a bright luster Lustre is a description of the way light interacts with the surface of a crystal, rock, or mineral. For example, a diamond is said to have an adamantine lustre and pyrite is said to have a metallic lustre. The term is also used to describe other items with a particular sheen (for example, fabric, especially silk and satin, or metals). As a pure metal, indium emits a high-pitched "cry A tin cry is the characteristic sound heard when a bar of tin is bent. Variously described as a "screaming" or "crackling" sound, the effect is caused by the shearing of crystals in the metal. The sound is not particularly loud, despite terms like "crying" and "screaming"", when it is bent.^[2] Both gallium Gallium is a chemical element that has the symbol Ga and atomic number 31. Elemental gallium does not occur in nature, but as the gallium(III) salt in trace amounts in bauxite and zinc ores. A soft silvery metallic poor metal, elemental gallium is a brittle solid at low temperatures. As it liquefies slightly above room temperature, it will melt in and indium are able to wet Wetting is the ability of a liquid to maintain contact with a solid surface, resulting from intermolecular interactions when the two are brought together. The degree of wetting is determined by a force balance between adhesive and cohesive forces glass. Indium has a standard electrode potential of +0.34V, the same as thallium.

Unlike its period 5 A period 5 element is one of the chemical elements in the fifth row of the periodic table of the elements. They all have 5 electron shells neighbor cadmium Cadmium is a chemical element with the symbol Cd and atomic number 48. The soft, bluish-white metal is chemically similar to the two other metals in group 12, zinc and mercury. Similar to zinc it prefers oxidation state +2 in most of its compounds and similar to mercury it shows a low melting point compared to transition metals. Cadmium and its, indium is not a cumulative poison Bioaccumulation refers to the accumulation of substances, such as pesticides, or other organic chemicals in an organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a toxic substance at a rate greater than that at which the substance is lost. Thus, the longer the biological half-life of the substance the greater the risk of chronic poisoning,.

Isotopes

Indium in nature consists of two primordial nuclides. One unusual property of indium (shared only with rhenium Rhenium is a chemical element with the symbol Re and atomic number 75. It is a silvery-white, heavy, third-row transition metal in group 7 of the periodic table. With an average concentration of 1 part per billion (ppb), rhenium is one of the rarest elements in the Earth's crust. The free element has the third-highest melting point of any element,) is that although it possesses a stable isotope, its most common (abundant) isotope Isotopes are different types of atoms of the same chemical element, each having a different number of neutrons. In a corresponding manner, isotopes differ in mass number (or number of nucleons) but never in atomic number. The number of protons (the atomic number) is the same because that is what characterizes a chemical element. For example, (95.7%) is slightly and measurably radioactive. This isotope, indium-115 very slowly decays by beta emission In nuclear physics, beta decay is a type of radioactive decay in which a beta particle is emitted. In the case of electron emission, it is referred to as beta minus (β−), while in the case of a positron emission as beta plus (β+). Kinetic energy of beta particles has continuous spectrum ranging from 0 to maximal available energy (Q), which to tin Tin is a chemical element with the symbol Sn and atomic number 50. It is a main group metal in group 14 of the periodic table. Tin shows chemical similarity to both neighboring group 14 elements, germanium and lead, like the two possible oxidation states +2 and +4. Tin is the 49th most abundant element and has, with 10 stable isotopes, the largest. This decay has a half-life of 4.41 × 10¹⁴ years, four orders of magnitude larger than the age of the universe and nearly 50,000 times longer than that of natural thorium Thorium is a naturally occurring, slightly radioactive metal. It is estimated to be about three to four times more abundant than uranium in the Earth's crust. It has been considered a waste product in mining rare earths, so its abundance is high and cost low.^[3]

Creation

Indium is created via the long S-process The S-process or slow-neutron-capture-process is a nucleosynthesis process that occurs at relatively low neutron density and intermediate temperature conditions in stars. Under these conditions the rate of neutron capture by atomic nuclei is slow relative to the rate of radioactive beta-minus decay. A stable isotope captures another neutron; but a in low-medium mass stars (.6 -> 10 solar masses). This takes thousands of years to do. It requires a cadmium Cadmium is a chemical element with the symbol Cd and atomic number 48. The soft, bluish-white metal is chemically similar to the two other metals in group 12, zinc and mercury. Similar to zinc it prefers oxidation state +2 in most of its compounds and similar to mercury it shows a low melting point compared to transition metals. Cadmium and its atom to capture sufficient neutrons The neutron is a subatomic particle with no net electric charge and a mass slightly larger than that of a proton. They are usually found in atomic nuclei. The nuclei of most atoms consist of protons and neutrons, which are therefore collectively referred to as nucleons. The number of protons in a nucleus is the atomic number and defines the type and then undergo Beta decay In nuclear physics, beta decay is a type of radioactive decay in which a beta particle is emitted. In the case of electron emission, it is referred to as beta minus (β⁻), while in the case of a positron emission as beta plus (β+). Kinetic energy of beta particles has continuous spectrum ranging from 0 to maximal available energy (Q), which.

History

In 1863 the German chemists Ferdinand Reich Ferdinand Reich was a German chemist who co-discovered indium in 1863 with Hieronymous Theodor Richter and Hieronymous Theodor Richter Hieronymus Theodor Richter was a German chemist who co-discovered indium in 1863 with Ferdinand Reich. He was born 21 November 1824 in Dresden and died 25 September 1898 in Freiberg, Saxony were testing ores from the mines around Freiberg, Saxony Freiberg is a city in the Free State of Saxony, Germany, capital of the Mittelsachsen district. They dissolved the minerals pyrite The mineral pyrite, or iron pyrite, is an iron sulfide with the formula Fe , arsenopyrite Arsenopyrite is an iron arsenic sulfide . It is a hard (Mohs 5.5-6) metallic, opaque, steel grey to silver white mineral with a relatively high specific gravity of 6.1. When dissolved in nitric acid, it releases elemental sulfur. When arsenopyrite is heated, it becomes magnetic and gives off toxic fumes. With 46% arsenic content, arsenopyrite,, galena Galena is the natural mineral form of lead sulfide. It is the most important lead ore mineral and sphalerite Sphalerite (S) is a mineral that is the chief ore of zinc. It consists largely of zinc sulfide in crystalline form but almost always contains variable iron. When iron content is high it is an opaque black variety, marmatite. It is usually found in association with galena, pyrite, and other sulfides along with calcite, dolomite, and fluorite in hydrochloric acid Hydrochloric acid is the solution of hydrogen chloride (H and distilled the raw zinc chloride Zinc chloride is the name of chemical compound with the formula Zn . As it was known that ores from that region sometimes contain thallium Thallium is a chemical element with the symbol Tl and atomic number 81. This soft gray malleable poor metal resembles tin but discolors when exposed to air. Approximately 60–70% of thallium production is used in the electronics industry, and the rest is used in the pharmaceutical industry and in glass manufacturing. It is also used in infrared they searched for the green emission lines with spectroscopic methods. The green lines were absent but a blue line was present in the spectrum. As no element was known with a bright blue emission they concluded that a new element was present in the minerals. They named the element with the blue spectral line indium, from the indigo Indigo is the color on the electromagnetic spectrum between about 420 and 450 nm in wavelength, placing it between blue and violet. Although traditionally considered one of seven divisions of the optical spectrum, modern color scientists do not usually recognize indigo as a separate division and generally classify wavelengths shorter than about 450 color seen in its spectrum.^[4][5] Richter went on to isolate the metal in 1864.^[6] At the World Fair In 1864 it was decreed by Emperor Napoleon III that an international exposition should be held in Paris in 1867. A commission was appointed with Prince Jerome Napoleon as president, under whose direction the preliminary work began. The site chosen for the Exposition Universelle was the Champ de Mars, the great military parade ground of Paris, 1867 an ingot of 0.5 kg (1.1 lb) was presented.^[7]

Occurrence and consumption

Indium ranks 61st in abundance in the Earth's crust at approximately 0.25 ppm,^[8] which means it is more than three times as abundant as silver, which occurs at 0.075 ppm.^[9] Fewer than 10 indium minerals are known, none occurring in significant deposits. Examples are the dzhalindite (In(OH)₃) and indite Indite is an extremely rare indium-iron sulfide mineral, found in Siberia. Its chemical formula is FeIn2S4 (FeIn₂S₄).^[10]

Resources

Based on content of indium in zinc ore stocks, there is a worldwide reserve base of approximately 6,000 tonnes of economically viable indium.^[11] This figure has led to estimates suggesting that, at current consumption rates, there is only 13 years' supply of indium left.^[12] However, the Indium Corporation, the largest processor of indium, claims that, on the basis of increasing recovery yields during extraction, recovery from a wider range of base metals (including tin, copper and other polymetallic deposits) and new mining investments, the long-term supply of indium is sustainable, reliable and sufficient to meet increasing future demands.^[13]

This conclusion also seems reasonable in light of the fact that silver, three times less abundant than indium in the earths crust,^[14] is currently mined at approximately 18,300 tonnes per annum,^[15] which is 40 times greater than current indium mining rates.

Production

The lack of indium mineral deposits and the fact that indium is enriched in sulfidic lead Lead is a main-group element with symbol Pb and atomic number 82. Lead is a soft, malleable poor metal. It is also counted as one of the heavy metals. Metallic lead has a bluish-white color after being freshly cut, but it soon tarnishes to a dull grayish color when exposed to air. Lead has a shiny chrome-silver luster when it is melted into a, tin Tin is a chemical element with the symbol Sn and atomic number 50. It is a main group metal in group 14 of the periodic table. Tin shows chemical similarity to both neighboring group 14 elements, germanium and lead, like the two possible oxidation states +2 and +4. Tin is the 49th most abundant element and has, with 10 stable isotopes, the largest, copper Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (Latin: cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is rather soft and malleable, and a freshly exposed surface has a pinkish or peachy color. It is used as a thermal conductor, an electrical conductor, a building material, and a, iron Iron is the most common element in the earth as a whole, and the fourth most common in the Earth's crust. It is produced as a result of stellar fusion in high-mass stars, and it is the heaviest stable element produced by stellar fusion because the fusion of iron is the last nuclear fusion reaction that is exothermic. Iron is the most widely used and predominately in zinc Zinc , also known as spelter, is a metallic chemical element; it has the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is the first element in group 12 of the periodic table. Zinc is, in some respects, chemically similar to magnesium, because its ion is of similar size and its only common oxidation state is +2. Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in the deposits, makes zinc production the main source for indium. The indium is leached from slag and dust of zinc production. Further purification is done by electrolysis In chemistry and manufacturing, electrolysis is a method of using an electric current to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous chemical reaction. Electrolysis is commercially highly important as a stage in the separation of elements from naturally occurring sources such as ores using an electrolytic cell.^[7]

Indium is produced mainly from residues generated during zinc ore processing but is also found in iron, lead, and copper ores.^[2] Canada is a leading producer of indium. The Teck Cominco refinery in Trail, British Columbia, is the largest single source indium producer, with production of 32,500 kg in 2005, 41,800 kg in 2004 and 36,100 kg in 2003. South American Silver's Malku Khota property in Bolivia is the largest resource of indium with an indicated resource of 845,000kg and inferred resource of 968,000kg.Adex Mining Inc.’s Mount Pleasant Mine in New Brunswick, Canada, holds about 15 to 20% of the world’s total known indium resources.^[16]

The amount of indium consumed is largely a function of worldwide LCD production. Worldwide production is currently 476 tonnes per year from mining and a further 650 tonnes per year from recycling.^[13] Demand has risen rapidly in recent years with the popularity of LCD computer monitors and television sets, which now account for 50% of indium consumption.^[17] Increased manufacturing efficiency and recycling (especially in Japan) maintain a balance between demand and supply. Demand increased as the metal is used in LCDs and televisions, and supply decreased when a number of Chinese mining concerns stopped extracting indium from their zinc tailings. In 2002, the price was US$94 per kilogram. The recent changes in demand and supply have resulted in high and fluctuating prices of indium, which from 2005 to 2007 ranged from US$700/kg to US$1,000/kg.^[11] Demand for indium may increase with large-scale manufacture of CIGS-based thin film solar technology starting by several companies in 2008, including Nanosolar and Miasole, although zinc oxide is often used instead.^{[citation needed]}

Applications

The first large-scale application for indium was as a coating for bearings in high-performance aircraft engines during World War II. Afterward, production gradually increased as new uses were found in fusible alloys, solders, and electronics. In the 1950s, tiny beads of it were used for the emitters and collectors of PNP alloy junction transistors. In the middle and late 1980s, the development of indium phosphide semiconductors and indium tin oxide thin films for liquid crystal displays (LCD) aroused much interest. By 1992, the thin-film application had become the largest end use.^[18][19]

Electronics

• Indium oxide (In₂O₃) and indium tin oxide (ITO) are used as a transparent conductive coating applied to glass substrates in the making of electroluminescent panels.
• Some indium compounds such as indium antimonide, indium phosphide,^[20] and indium nitride^[21] are semiconductors with useful properties.
• Indium is used in the synthesis of the semiconductor copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS), which is used for the manufacture of thin film solar cells.^[22]
• Used in light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes based on compound semiconductors such as InGaN, InGaP that are fabricated by Metalorganic Vapor Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE) technology.
• The ultrapure metalorganics of indium, specifically high purity trimethylindium (TMI) is used as a precursor in III-V compound semiconductors, while it is also used as the semiconductor dopant in II-VI compound semiconductors.^[23]

Metal and alloys

• Very small amounts used in aluminium alloy sacrificial anodes (for salt water applications) to prevent passivation of the aluminium.
• To bond gold electrical test leads to superconductors, indium is used as a conducting glue and applied under a microscope with precision tweezers.
• In the form of a wire it is used as a vacuum seal and a thermal conductor in cryogenics and ultra-high vacuum applications. For example, in manufacturing gaskets which deform to fill gaps.^[24]
• Used as a calibration material for Differential scanning calorimetry.
• It is an ingredient in the alloy Galinstan, which is liquid at room temperature while not being toxic like mercury.

Other uses

• Indium tin oxide is used as a light filter in low pressure sodium vapor lamps. The infrared radiation is reflected back into the lamp, which increases the temperature within the tube and therefore improves the performance of the lamp.^[19]
• Indium's melting point of 429.7485 K (156.5985 °C) is a defining fixed point on the international temperature scale ITS-90.
• Indium's high neutron capture cross section for thermal neutrons makes it suitable for use in control rods for nuclear reactors, typically in an alloy containing 80% silver, 15% indium, and 5% cadmium.
• In nuclear engineering, the (n,n') reactions of ¹¹³In and ¹¹⁵In are used to determine magnitudes of neutron fluxes.
• Indium is also used as a thermal interface material by personal computer enthusiasts in the form of pre-shaped foil sheets fitted between the heat-transfer surface of a microprocessor and its heat sink. The application of heat partially melts the foil and allows the indium metal to fill in any microscopic gaps and pits between the two surfaces, removing any insulating air pockets that would otherwise compromise heat transfer efficiency.
• ¹¹¹In emits gamma radiation and is used in indium leukocyte imaging, or indium scintigraphy, a technique of medical imaging. Indium leukocyte scintigraphy has many applications, including early phase drug development, and the monitoring of activity of white blood cells. For the test, blood is taken from the patient, white cells removed, labeled with the radioactive ¹¹¹In, then re-injected back into the patient. Gamma imaging will then reveal any areas of on-going white cell localization such as new and developing areas of infection.

Precautions

Pure indium in metal form is considered non-toxic by most sources. In the welding and semiconductor industries, where indium exposure is relatively high, there have been no reports of any toxic side-effects.

This may not be the case with indium compounds. For example, anhydrous indium trichloride (InCl₃) is quite toxic, and indium phosphide (InP) is both toxic and a suspected carcinogen.^[25][26]

See also

• Indium compounds

References

1. ^ Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press.
2. ^ ^{a b} Alfantazi, A. M.; Moskalyk, R. R. (2003). "Processing of indium: a review". Minerals Engineering 16 (8): 687–694. doi:10.1016/S0892-6875(03)00168-7.
3. ^ Audi, Georges (2003). "The NUBASE Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties". Nuclear Physics A (Atomic Mass Data Center) 729: 3–128. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001.
4. ^ Reich, F.; Richter, T. (1863). "Ueber das Indium" (in German). Journal für Praktische Chemie 90 (1): 172–176. doi:10.1002/prac.18630900122.
5. ^ Venetskii, S. (1971). "Indium". Metallurgist 15 (2): 148–150. doi:10.1007/BF01088126.
6. ^ Reich, F.; Richter, T. (1864). "Ueber das Indium" (in German). Journal für Praktische Chemie 92 (1): 480–485. doi:10.1002/prac.18640920180.
7. ^ ^{a b} Schwarz-Schampera, Ulrich; Herzig, Peter M. (2002). Indium: Geology, Mineralogy, and Economics. Springer. ISBN 9783540431350. http://books.google.com/?id=k7x_2_KnupMC&pg=PA1.
8. ^ "The Element Indium". It's Elemental. http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele049.html. Retrieved 2007-12-26.
9. ^ "The Element Silver". It's Elemental. http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele047.html. Retrieved 2007-12-26.
10. ^ Sutherland, J. K. (1971). "A second occurrence of dzhalindite". The Canadian Mineralogist 10 (5): 781–786. http://canmin.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/10/5/781.
11. ^ ^{a b} "Mineral Commodities Summary 2007: Indium" (pdf). United States Geological Survey. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/indium/indiumcs07.pdf. Retrieved 2007-12-26.
12. ^ "How Long Will it Last?". New Scientist 194 (2605): 38–39. May 26, 2007. ISSN 0262-4079. http://environment.newscientist.com/channel/earth/mg19426051.200-earths-natural-wealth-an-audit.html.
13. ^ ^{a b} "Indium and Gallium Supply Sustainability September 2007 Update" (pdf). 22nd EU PV Conference, Milan, Italy. http://www.indium.com/_dynamo/download.php?docid=552. Retrieved 2007-12-26.
14. ^ "Indium Price Supported by LCD Demand and New Uses for the Metal". September 6, 2009. http://geology.com/articles/indium.shtml.
15. ^ "Top World Silver Producers" (pdf). World Silver Survey 2007. http://www.nma.org/pdf/g_silver_producers.pdf.
16. ^ Wright, Phillip. “Mineral and Metal Commodity Review: Tin.” Natural Resources Canada, 1996.
17. ^ "Indium Price Supported by LCD Demand and New Uses for the Metal" (pdf). Geology.com. http://geology.com/articles/indium.shtml. Retrieved 2007-12-26.
18. ^ Tolcin, Amy C.. "Mineral Yearbook 2007: Indium" (pdf). United States Geological Survey. http://minerals.usgs.gov/mineralofthemonth/indium.pdf. Retrieved 200-02-03.
19. ^ ^{a b} Downs, Anthony John (1993). Chemistry of Aluminium, Gallium, Indium, and Thallium. Springer. pp. 89 and 106. ISBN 9780751401035. http://books.google.com/?id=v-04Kn758yIC.
20. ^ Bachmann, K. J. (1981). "Properties, Preparation, and Device Applications of Indium Phosphide". Annual Review of Materials Science 11: 441–484. doi:10.1146/annurev.ms.11.080181.002301.
21. ^ Bhuiyan, Ghani; Hashimoto, Akihiro; Yamamoto, Akioare (2003). "Indium nitride (InN): A review on growth, characterization, and properties". Journal of Applied Physics 94: 2779. doi:10.1063/1.1595135.
22. ^ Powalla, M.; Dimmler, B. (2000). "Scaling up issues of CIGS solar cells". Thin Solid Films 361-362: 540–546. doi:10.1016/S0040-6090(99)00849-4.
23. ^ Shenai, Deodatta V.; Timmons, Michael L.; DiCarlo Jr., Ronald L.; Marsman, Charles J. (2004). "Correlation of film properties and reduced impurity concentrations in sources for III/V-MOVPE using high-purity trimethylindium and tertiarybutylphosphine". Journal of Crystal Growth 272 (1–4): 603–608. doi:10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2004.09.006.
24. ^ ed. by G. L. Weissler ... (1990). Vacuum physics and technology. San Diego: Acad. Press. p. 296. ISBN 9780124759145. http://books.google.com/?id=tfLWfAx1ZWQC&pg=PA296.
25. ^ Tanaka, A.; Hirata, M.; Omura, M., (2002). "Pulmonary toxicity of indium-tin oxide and indium phosphide after intratracheal instillations into the lung of hamsters". Journal of the Occupational Health 44: 99–102. doi:10.1539/joh.44.99.
26. ^ Blazka, ME; Dixon, D., Haskins, E., Rosenthal, G. J. (1994). "Pulmonary toxicity to intratracheally administered indium trichloride in Fischer 344 rats". Fundamental Applied Toxicology 22: 231–239. doi:10.1006/faat.1994.1027.

External links

• WebElements.com – Indium
• Reducing Agents > Indium low valent
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