India Information

India (ⁱ / ˈ ɪ n d i ə /), officially the Republic of India (Hindi: भारत गणराज्य Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also official names of India), is a state located in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west; Bhutan, the People's Republic of China and Nepal to the northeast; and Bangladesh and Burma to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; in addition, India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia.

Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilization and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history.^[13] Four of the world's major religions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism—originated here, while Zoroastrianism, Christianity and Islam arrived in the first millennium CE and shaped the region's diverse culture.^[14] Gradually annexed by the British East India Company from the early 18th century and colonised by the United Kingdom from the mid-19th century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence which was marked by non-violent resistance and led by Mahatma Gandhi.

The Indian economy is the world's tenth largest economy by nominal GDP and fourth largest economy by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India has become one of the fastest growing major economies, and is considered a newly industrialized country; however, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, illiteracy, corruption and inadequate public health. A nuclear weapons state and a regional power, it has the third-largest standing army in the world, and ranks tenth in military expenditure among nations.

India is a federal constitutional republic with a parliamentary democracy consisting of 28 states and seven union territories. It is one of the five BRICS nations. India is a pluralistic, multilingual, and multiethnic society. It is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats.

Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Ancient India 2.2 Early medieval and medieval India 2.3 Modern India 3 Geography 4 Biodiversity 5 Politics 5.1 Government 5.2 Administrative divisions 6 Foreign relations and military 7 Economy 8 Demographics 9 Culture 9.1 Society and traditions 9.2 Music, dance, theatre and cinema 9.3 Sport 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 External links

Etymology

Main article: Names of India

The name India is derived from Indus, which is derived from the Old Persian word Hindu, from Sanskrit सिन्धु Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the Indus River.^[15] The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi (Ινδοί), the people of the Indus.^[16] The Constitution of India and usage in many Indian languages also recognises Bharat (pronounced [ˈbʱaːrət̪] ( listen)) as an official name of equal status.^[17] The name Bharat is derived from the name of the legendary king Bharata in Hindu scriptures. Hindustan ([ɦɪnd̪ʊˈst̪aːn] ( listen)), originally a Persian word for “Land of the Hindus” referring to northern India and Pakistan before 1947, is also occasionally used as a synonym for all of India.^[18]

History

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Main articles: History of India and History of the Republic of India

Ancient India

The earliest anatomically modern human remains found in South Asia are from approximately 30,000 years ago.^[19] Near contemporaneous Mesolithic rock art sites have been found in many parts of the Indian subcontinent, including at the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh.^[20] Around 7000 BCE, the first known neolithic settlements appeared on the subcontinent in Mehrgarh and other sites in western Pakistan.^[21] These gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation,^[22] the first urban culture in South Asia,^[23] which flourished during 2500–1900 BCE in Pakistan and western India.^[24] Centred around its cities, such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Lothal, and Kalibangan, and relying on varied forms of subsistence, the civilisation engaged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging trade.^[23]

During the period 2000 BCE–500 BCE, many regions of the subcontinent evolved from copper age to iron age cultures.^[25] The Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism,^[26] were composed during this period, and historians have analysed these to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Ganges Plain.^[25] Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent from the north-west.^[26] The caste system, creating a social hierarchy, appeared during this period.^[27] In the Deccan, archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organization.^[25] In South India, the large number of megalithic monuments found from this period,^[28] and nearby evidence of agriculture, irrigation tanks, and craft traditions suggest progression to sedentary life.^[28]

By the fifth century BCE, the small chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north-west regions had consolidated into sixteen major oligarchies and monarchies called Mahajanapadas.^[29] The emerging urbanisation as well as the orthodoxies of the late Vedic age now created the religious reform movements of Buddhism and Jainism.^[30] Buddhism, based on the teachings of India's first historical figure, Gautam Buddha, attracted followers from all social classes;^[31] Jainism, older, came into prominence around the same time during the life of its exemplar, Mahavira.^[32] In an age of increasing urban wealth, both religions held up renunciation as an ideal,^[33] and both established long-lasting monasteries.^[34] Politically, by the 3rd century BCE, the kingdom of Magadha had annexed or reduced other states to emerge as the Mauryan Empire.^[34] The empire was once thought to have controlled most of the subcontinent excepting the far south, but its core regions are now thought to have been separated by large autonomous areas.^[35] The Mauryas are known as much for their empire building and determined management of public life as for Ashoka the Great's renunciation of militarism and his far flung advocacy of the Buddhist dhamma.^[36]

Paintings at the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, sixth century

The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that during the period 200 BCE–200 CE, the southern peninsula was being ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas, dynasties that would trade extensively with the Roman Empire, and with west and south-east Asia.^[37] In north India, during the same time, Hinduism asserted patriarchal control within the family, leading to the increased subordination of women.^[38] By the fourth and fifth centuries CE, the Gupta Empire had created a complex administrative and taxation system in the greater Ganges Plain that would become a model for later Indian kingdoms.^[39] Under the Guptas, a renewed Hinduism, based on devotion rather than the management of ritual, began to assert itself,^[40] and was reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture, which found patrons among an urban elite.^[41] Classical Sanskrit literature flowered as well, and Indian science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics made significant advances.^[41]

Early medieval and medieval India

The Indian early medieval age (600 CE to 1200 CE) was defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity.^[42] When Harsha of Kannauj, who ruled much of the Ganges plain from 606 to 647 CE, attempted to expand southwards, he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan.^[43] When his successor attempted to expand eastwards, he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal.^[43] When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the Pallavas from farther south, who, in turn, were opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas from still farther south.^[43] No ruler of this period was able to create an empire and consistently control lands much beyond his core region.^[42] During this time also, pastoral peoples whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agriculture economy were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling classes.^[44] The caste system, consequently, began to show regional differences.^[44]

In the sixth and seventh centuries CE, the first devotional hymns in an Indian vernacular were created in the Tamil language.^[45] These were imitated all over India, and led both to the resurgence of Hinduism and to the development of all the modern languages of the subcontinent.^[45] Indian royalty, big and small, and the temples they patronised drew citizens in great numbers to the capital cities, which became economic hubs as well.^[46] Temple towns of various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent another urbanisation.^[46] By the eight and ninth centuries, the effects were evident elsewhere as well; for South Indian culture and political systems were being exported to Southeast Asia, in particular to what today are Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia and Java.^[47] Not only were Indian merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies involved in this transmission, but the south-east Asians took the initiative as well, with many sojourning in Indian seminaries and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into their languages.^[47]

Muslim rule in the subcontinent began in 712 CE when the Arab general Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh and Multan in southern Punjab in modern day Pakistan, setting the stage for several successive invasions from Central Asia between the 10th and 15th centuries CE, leading to the formation of Muslim empires in the Indian subcontinent such as the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire.^{[citation needed]}

Mughal rule came from Central Asia to cover most of the northern parts of the subcontinent. Mughal rulers introduced Central Asian art and architecture to India. In addition to the Mughals and various Rajput kingdoms, several independent Hindu states, such as the Vijayanagara Empire, the Maratha Empire, and the Ahom Kingdom, flourished contemporaneously in southern, western, and northeastern India respectively. The Mughal Empire suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, which provided opportunities for the Afghans, Balochis, and the Sikhs to control large areas in the west and northwest of the subcontinent until the British East India Company gained ascendancy over South Asia.^{[citation needed]}

Modern India

Beginning in the mid-18th century and over the next century, India was gradually annexed by the British East India Company. Dissatisfaction with Company rule led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, after which India was directly administered by the British Crown and witnessed a period of both rapid development of infrastructure and economic decline.^{[citation needed]}

Mahatma Gandhi (right) was a prime political and ideological leader during the Indian Independence Movement. Jawaharlal Nehru (left) was India's first prime minister in 1947.

During the first half of the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress and later joined by the Muslim League. The subcontinent gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, after being partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan. On 26 January 1950, India became a republic and a new constitution came into effect.^[48]

Since independence, India has faced challenges from religious violence, casteism, naxalism, terrorism and regional separatist insurgencies, especially in Jammu and Kashmir and Northeast India. Since the 1990s terrorist attacks have affected many Indian cities. India has unresolved territorial disputes with the People's Republic of China, which, in 1962, escalated into the Sino-Indian War, and with Pakistan, which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, 1971 and 1999. India is a founding member of the United Nations (as British India) and the Non-Aligned Movement.^{[citation needed]}

India is a state armed with nuclear weapons; having conducted its first nuclear test in 1974,^[49] followed by another five tests in 1998.^[49] Beginning 1991, significant economic reforms^[50] have transformed India into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, increasing its global clout.^[51]

Geography

Main article: Geography of India See also: Geology of India Topographic map of India.

India, the major portion of the Indian subcontinent, lies atop the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate within the Indo-Australian Plate.^[52] India's defining geological processes commenced seventy-five million years ago, when the Indian subcontinent, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a northeastwards drift—lasting fifty million years—across the then unformed Indian Ocean.^[52] The subcontinent's subsequent collision with the Eurasian Plate and subduction under it, gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet's highest mountains, which now abut India in the north and the north-east.^[52] In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough, which, having gradually been filled with river-borne sediment,^[53] now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain.^[54] To the west of this plain, and cut off from it by the Aravalli Range, lies the Thar Desert.^[55]

The original Indian plate now survives as peninsular India, the oldest and geologically most stable part of India, and extends as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel ranges run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east.^[56] To their south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the left and right by the coastal ranges, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats respectively;^[57] the plateau contains the oldest rock formations in India, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6°44' and 35°30' north latitude^[58] and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude.^[59]

The Himalayas form the mountainous landscape of northern India. Seen here is Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir.

India's coast is 7,517 kilometres (4,700 mi) long; of this distance, 5,423 kilometres (3,400 mi) belong to peninsular India, and 2,094 kilometres (1,300 mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep Islands.^[60] According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coast consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky coast including cliffs, and 46% mudflats or marshy coast.^[60]

Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges (Ganga) and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.^[61] Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi; the latter's extremely low gradient causes disastrous floods every year. Major peninsular rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding, include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal;^[62] and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea.^[63] Among notable coastal features of India are the marshy Rann of Kutch in western India, and the alluvial Sundarbans delta, which India shares with Bangladesh.^[64] India has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea.^[65]

India's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the monsoons.^[66] The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.^[67][68] The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall.^[66] Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and montane.^[69]

Biodiversity

Main article: Wildlife of India See also: List of ecoregions in India The Indian peacock is India's national bird and is found primarily in semi-desert grasslands, scrubs and deciduous forests of India.^[70]

Lying within the Indomalaya ecozone, with three hotspots located within its area, India displays significant biodiversity.^[71] As one of the seventeen megadiverse countries, it is home to 7.6% of all mammalian, 12.6% of all avian, 6.2% of all reptilian, 4.4% of all amphibian, 11.7% of all fish, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species.^[72] Many ecoregions, such as the shola forests, exhibit extremely high rates of endemism; overall, 33% of Indian plant species are endemic.^[73][74]

India's forest cover ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and northeastern India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the sal-dominated moist deciduous forest of eastern India; the teak-dominated dry deciduous forest of central and southern India; and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain.^[75] Important Indian trees include the medicinal neem, widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies. The pipal fig tree, shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro, shaded Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment. According to latest report, less than 12% of India's landmass is covered by dense forests.^[76]

Many Indian species are descendants of taxa originating in Gondwana, from which the Indian plate separated a long time ago. Peninsular India's subsequent movement towards, and collision with, the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years ago caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.^[77] Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya.^[75] Consequently, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians.^[72] Notable endemics are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and the brown and carmine Beddome's toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of IUCN-designated threatened species.^[78] These include the Asiatic Lion, the Bengal Tiger, and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which suffered a near-extinction from ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle.

In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India's wildlife; in response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act^[79] and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial habitat; in addition, the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980.^[80] Along with more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries, India hosts thirteen biosphere reserves,^[81] four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; twenty-five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.^[82]

Politics

Main article: Politics of India The Secretariat Building, in New Delhi, houses key government offices.

India is the most populous democracy in the world.^[83][84] A parliamentary republic with a multi-party system,^[85] it has six recognised national parties, including the Indian National Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and more than 40 regional parties.^[86] The Congress is considered centre-left or "liberal" in Indian political culture, and the BJP centre-right or "conservative". For most of the period between 1950 — when India first became a republic — and the late 1980s, the Congress held a majority in the parliament. Since then, however, it has increasingly shared the political stage with the BJP,^[87] as well as with powerful regional parties which have often forced the creation of multi-party coalitions at the Centre.^[88]

In the Republic of India's first three general elections, in 1951, 1957 and 1962, the Jawaharlal Nehru-led Congress won easy victories. On Nehru's death in 1964, Lal Bahadur Shastri briefly became prime minister; he was succeeded, after his own unexpected death in 1966, by Indira Gandhi, who went on to lead the Congress to election victories in 1967 and 1971. Following public discontent with the state of emergency she declared in 1975, the Congress was voted out of power in 1977, and a new party, the Janata Party, which had opposed the emergency, was voted in. Its government, however, proved short-lived, lasting just over three years. Back in power in 1980, the Congress saw a change in leadership in 1984, when Indira Gandhi was assassinated and succeeded by her son Rajiv Gandhi, who won an easy victory in the general elections later that year. The Congress was voted out again in 1989, when a National Front coalition, led by the newly formed Janata Dal, in alliance with the Left Front, won the elections; that government too proved short-lived, lasting just under two years.^[89] Elections were held again in 1991 in which no party won an absolute majority, but the Congress, as the largest single party, was able to form a minority government, led by P.V. Narasimha Rao, and to complete a five-year term.^[90]

The two years after the general election of 1996 were years of political turmoil, with several short-lived alliances sharing power at the centre. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996; it was followed by two relatively longer-lasting United Front coalitions, which depended on external support. In 1998, the BJP was able to form a successful coalition, the National Democratic Alliance (NDA), which, under the leadership of Atal Bihari Vajpayee, became the first non-Congress government to complete a full five-year term.^[91] In the 2004 Indian general elections, again no party won an absolute majority, but the Congress emerged as the largest single party, forming a successful coalition, the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), with the support of left-leaning parties and MPs opposed to the BJP. The UPA coalition was returned to power in the 2009 general election, with increased numbers that ensured it no longer required external support from India's Communist parties.^[92] That year, Manmohan Singh became the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1957 and 1962 to be re-elected to a second consecutive five-year term.^[93]

Government

Main articles: Government of India, Constitution of India, and Elections in India

National Symbols of India[94][95]
Flag	Tricolour
Emblem	Sarnath Lion Capital
Anthem	Jana Gana Mana
Song	Vande Mataram
Animal	Royal Bengal Tiger
Bird	Indian Peacock
Aquatic animal	Dolphin
Flower	Lotus
Tree	Banyan
Fruit	Mango
Game	Field hockey
Calendar	Saka
River	Ganges

India is a federation with a parliamentary system governed under the Constitution of India.^[96] It is a constitutional republic and representative democracy, in which "majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law." Federalism in India defines the power distribution between the federal government and the states. The government is regulated by a checks and balances defined by Indian Constitution, which serves as the country's supreme legal document. The Constitution of India, which came into effect on 26 January 1950,^[97] states in its preamble that India is a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic.^[98] India's form of government, traditionally described as 'quasi-federal' with a strong centre and weak states,^[99] has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of political, economic and social changes.^[100]

The President of India is the head of state^[101] elected indirectly by an electoral college^[102] for a five-year term.^[103][104] The Prime Minister is the head of government and exercises most executive power.^[101] Appointed by the President,^[105] the prime minister is by convention supported by the party or political alliance holding the majority of seats in the lower house of parliament.^[101] The executive branch of the Indian government consists of the president, the vice-president, and the council of ministers (the cabinet being its executive committee) headed by the prime minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of one of the houses of parliament. In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature, with the prime minister and his council directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament.^[106]

The legislature of India is the bicameral parliament, operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system, and comprising the upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the lower called the Lok Sabha (House of People).^[107] The Rajya Sabha, a permanent body, has 245 members serving staggered six year terms.^[108] Most are elected indirectly by the state and territorial legislatures, their numbers in proportion to their state's population.^[108] All but two of the Lok Sabha's 545 members are directly elected by popular vote to represent individual constituencies for five-year terms.^[108] The remaining two members are nominated by the president from among the Anglo-Indian community, in case the president decides that the community is not adequately represented.^[108]

India has a unitary three-tier judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, 21 High Courts, and a large number of trial courts.^[109] The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts.^[110] It is judicially independent,^[109] and has the power both to declare the law and to strike down Union or State laws which contravene the Constitution.^[111] The Supreme Court is also the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution, it being one of its most important functions.^[112]

Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of India

India is a federation composed of 28 states and seven Union Territories.^[113] All states, as well as the union territories of Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of Delhi, have elected legislatures and governments, both patterned on the Westminster model. The remaining five union territories are directly ruled by the Centre through appointed administrators. In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were reorganised on a linguistic basis.^[114] Since then, their structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is further divided into administrative districts.^[115] The districts in turn are further divided into tehsils and ultimately into villages.

The 28 states and 7 union territories of India

States:

Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Chhattisgarh Goa Gujarat

Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh

Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Orissa Punjab

Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand West Bengal

Union Territories:

Andaman and Nicobar Islands Chandigarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Daman and Diu Lakshadweep National Capital Territory of Delhi Puducherry

Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of India and Indian Armed Forces India and Russia share an extensive economic, defence and technological relationship.^[116] Shown here is PM Manmohan Singh with President Dmitry Medvedev at the 34th G8 Summit.

Since its independence in 1947, India has maintained cordial relations with most nations. In the 1950s, it strongly supported the independence of European colonies in Africa and Asia and played a pioneering role in the Non-Aligned Movement.^[117][118] In the late 1980s, India made two brief military interventions at the invitation of neighbouring countries, one by the Indian Peace Keeping Force in Sri Lanka and the other, Operation Cactus, in the Maldives. However, India has had a tense relationship with neighbouring Pakistan and the two countries have gone to war four times, in 1947, 1965, 1971 and 1999. The Kashmir dispute was the predominant cause of these wars, excepting that of 1971, which followed the civil unrest in erstwhile East Pakistan.^[119] After the India-China War of 1962 and the 1965 war with Pakistan, India proceeded to develop close military and economic ties with the Soviet Union; by late 1960s, the Soviet Union had emerged as India's largest arms supplier.^[120]

Today, in addition to the continuing strategic relations with Russia, India has wide ranging defence relations with Israel and France. In recent years, India has played an influential role in the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the World Trade Organization.^[121] The nation has provided 55,000 military and police personnel to serve in thirty-five UN peacekeeping operations across four continents.^[122] India is also an active participant in various multilateral forums, most notably the East Asia Summit and the G8+5.^[123][124] In the economic sphere, India has close relationships with the developing nations of South America, Asia and Africa. For about a decade now, India has also pursued a "Look East" policy which has helped it strengthen its partnerships with the ASEAN nations, Japan and South Korea on a wide range of issues, but especially economic investment and regional security.^[125][126]

Jointly developed by Sukhoi and Hindustan Aeronautics, the Su-30 MKI "Flanker-H" is the Indian Air Force's prime air superiority fighter.^[127]

China's nuclear test of 1964 as well as its repeated threats to intervene in support of Pakistan in the 1965 war convinced India to develop nuclear weapons of its own.^[128] India conducted its first nuclear weapons test in 1974 and further underground testing in 1998. Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has signed neither the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) nor the NPT, considering both to be flawed and discriminatory.^[129] India maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy and is developing a nuclear triad capability as a part of its "minimum credible deterrence" doctrine.^[130][131] It is also developing a ballistic missile defence shield and, in collaboration with Russia, a fifth generation fighter jet.^[132][133] Other major indigenous military development projects include Vikrant class aircraft carriers and Arihant class nuclear submarines.^[134][135]

Recently, India has also increased its economic, strategic and military cooperation with the United States and the European Union.^[136] In 2008, a civilian nuclear agreement was signed between India and the United States. Although India possessed nuclear weapons at the time and was not party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), it received waivers from the International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), ending earlier restrictions on India's nuclear technology and commerce. As a consequence, India has become the world's sixth de facto nuclear weapons state.^[137] Following the NSG waiver, India was also able to sign civilian nuclear energy cooperation agreements with other nations, including Russia,^[138] France,^[139] the United Kingdom,^[140] and Canada.^[141]

With 1.3 million active troops, the Indian military is the third largest in the world. India's armed forces consists of an Indian Army, Navy, Air Force, and auxiliary forces such as the Paramilitary Forces, the Coast Guard, and the Strategic Forces Command, is the third largest in the world.^[48][142] The President of India is the supreme commander of the Indian Armed Forces. The official Indian defence budget for 2011 stands at US$36.03 billion (or 1.83% of GDP).^[143] According to a 2008 SIPRI report, India's annual military expenditure in terms of purchasing power stood at US$72.7 billion,^[144] India has also become the world's largest arms importer, receiving 9% of all international arms transfers during the period from 2006–2010.^[145] Defence contractors, such as the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), oversee indigenous development of sophisticated arms and military equipment, including ballistic missiles, fighter aircraft and main battle tanks, in order to reduce India's dependence on foreign imports.

Economy

Main article: Economy of India See also: Economic history of India, Economic development in India, and Transport in India The Bombay Stock Exchange, in Mumbai, is Asia's oldest and India's largest stock exchange by market capitalisation.

According to the International Monetary Fund, India's nominal GDP stands at US$1.53 trillion, making it the tenth-largest economy in the world.^[146] With purchasing power parity (PPP), India's economy is the fourth largest in the world at US$4.06 trillion.^[147] With its average annual GDP growing at 5.8% for the past two decades, India is also one of the fastest growing economies in the world.^[148] However, India's per capita income is US$1,000,^[149] and the country ranks 138th in nominal GDP per capita and 129th in GDP per capita at PPP among all countries of the world.^[146]

Until 1991, all Indian governments followed protectionist policies that were influenced by socialist economics. Widespread state intervention and regulation^[150] caused the Indian economy to be largely closed to the outside world. After an acute balance of payments crisis in 1991, the nation liberalised its economy and has since continued to move towards a free-market system,^[151][152] emphasizing both foreign trade and investment.^[153] Consequently, India's economic model is now being described overall as capitalist.^[152]

With 467 million workers, India has the world's second largest labour force.^[154] The service sector makes up 54% of the GDP, the agricultural sector 28%, and the industrial sector 18%. Major agricultural products include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and potatoes.^[113] Major industries include textiles, telecommunications, chemicals, food processing, steel, transport equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery and software.^[113] By 2006, India's external trade had reached a relatively moderate proportion of GDP at 24%, up from 6% in 1985.^[151] In 2008, India's share of world trade was 1.68%;^[155] India was the world's fifteenth largest importer in 2009, and the eighteenth largest exporter.^[156] Major exports include petroleum products, textile goods, gems and jewelry, software, engineering goods, chemicals, and leather manufactures.^[113] Major imports include crude oil, machinery, gems, fertiliser, chemicals.^[113]

Tata Nano, the world's cheapest car.^[157] India is the world's number one producer of basic cars.^[158]

Averaging an economic growth rate of 7.5% during the last few years,^[151] India has more than doubled its hourly wage rates during the last decade.^[159] Moreover, since 1985, India has moved 431 million of its citizens out of poverty, and by 2030 India's middle class numbers will grow to more than 580 million.^[160] Although ranking 51st in global competitiveness, India ranks 17th in financial market sophistication, 24th in the banking sector, 44th in business sophistication and 39th in innovation, ahead of several advanced economies.^[161] With seven of the world's top 15 technology outsourcing companies based in India, the country is viewed as the second most favourable outsourcing destination after the United States.^[162] India's consumer market, currently the world's thirteenth largest, is expected to become fifth largest by 2030.^[160] Its telecommunication industry, the world's fastest growing, added 227 million subscribers during 2010–11 ^[163] its automobile industry, the world's second-fastest growing, increased domestic sales by 26% during 2009–10,^[164] and exports by 36% during 2008–09.^[165]

Despite impressive economic growth during recent decades, India continues to face a number of socio-economic challenges. India contains the largest concentration of people living below the World Bank's international poverty line of $1.25/day,^[166] the proportion having decreased from 60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005.^[167] Half of the children in India are underweight^[168] and 46% of children under the age of three suffer from malnutrition.^[166] Since 1991, economic inequality between India's states has consistently grown: the per capita net state domestic product of the richest states in 2007 was 3.2 times that of the poorest.^[169] Corruption in India is perceived to have increased significantly,^[170] with one report estimating the illegal capital flows since independence to be US$462 billion.^[171] Driven by consistent growth, India's nominal GDP per capita has steadily increased from U$463 in 2001 to U$1,176 by 2010, yet it remains lower than those of other Asian developing countries such as Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, and Iran.^[172]

According to a 2011 PwC report, India's GDP at purchasing power parity will overtake that of Japan during 2011 itself and that of the United States by 2045.^[173] Moreover, during the next four decades, India's economy is expected to grow at an average of 8%, making the nation potentially the world's fastest growing major economy until 2050.^[173] The report also highlights some of the key factors behind high economic growth — a young and rapidly growing working age population; the growth of the manufacturing sector due to rising levels of education and engineering skills; and sustained growth of the consumer market due to a rapidly growing middle class.^[173] However, the World Bank cautions that for India to achieve its economic potential, it must continue to focus on public sector reform, transport infrastructure, agricultural and rural development, removal of labour regulations, education, energy security, and public health and nutrition.^[174]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of India See also: Ethnic groups of South Asia and List of most populous metropolitan areas in India Population density map of India.

With 1,210,193,422 citizens reported in the 2011 provisional Census,^[8] India is the world's second most populous country. India's population grew at 1.76% per annum during the last decade,^[8] down from 2.13% per annum in the previous decade (1991-2001).^[175] The human sex ratio in India, according to the 2011 census, is 940 females per 1,000 males,^[8] the lowest since independence. India's median age was 24.9 in the 2001 census.^[48] Medical advances of the last 50 years, as well increased agricultural productivity brought about by the "green revolution" have caused India's population to grow rapidly.^[176][177] The percentage of Indian population living in urban areas has grown as well, increasing by 31.2% from 1991 to 2001.^[178] Despite this, in 2001, over 70% of India's population continued to live in rural areas.^[179][180] According to the 2001 census, there are twenty seven million-plus cities in the country,^[178] with Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata being the largest.

India's overall literacy rate in 2011 is 74.04%, its female literacy rate standing at 65.46% and its male at 82.14%.^[181] The state of Kerala has the highest literacy rate, whereas Bihar has the lowest.^[182][183] India continues to face several public health-related challenges.^[184][185] According to the World Health Organization, 900,000 Indians die each year from drinking contaminated water or breathing polluted air.^[186] There are about 60 physicians per 100,000 people in India.^[187]

The Indian Constitution recognises 212 scheduled tribal groups which together constitute about 7.5% of the country's population.^[188] The 2001 census reported the religion in India with the largest number of followers was Hinduism, with over 800 million (80.5%) of the population recording it as their religion. Other religious groups include Muslims (13.4%), Christians (2.3%), Sikhs (1.9%), Buddhists (0.8%), Jains (0.4%), Jews, Zoroastrians and Bahá'ís.^[189] India has the world's third-largest Muslim population and the largest Muslim population for a non-Muslim majority country.

India is home to two major language families: Indo-Aryan (spoken by about 74% of the population) and Dravidian (spoken by about 24%). Other languages spoken in India come from the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman language families. Neither the Constitution of India, nor any Indian law defines any national language.^[190] Hindi, with the largest number of speakers,^[191] is the official language of the union.^[192] English is used extensively in business and administration and has the status of a 'subsidiary official language;'^[193] it is also important in education, especially as a medium of higher education. In addition, every state and union territory has its own official languages, and the constitution also recognises in particular 21 "scheduled languages".

Culture

Main article: Culture of India The Taj Mahal in Agra was built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan as a memorial to his deceased wife Mumtaz Mahal. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site considered to be of "outstanding universal value".^[194]

India's culture is marked by a high degree of syncretism^[195] and cultural pluralism.^[196] India's cultural tradition dates back to 8000 BCE^[197] and has a continuously recorded history for over 2,500 years.^[198] With its roots based in the Indus Valley Tradition, the Indian culture took a distinctive shape during the 11th century BCE Vedic age which laid the foundation of Hindu philosophy, mythology, literary tradition and beliefs and practices, such as dhárma, kárma, yóga and mokṣa.^[199] It has managed to preserve established traditions while absorbing new customs, traditions, and ideas from invaders and immigrants and spreading its cultural influence to other parts of Asia, mainly South East and East Asia.

Indian religions form one of the most defining aspects of Indian culture.^[200] Major dhármic religions which were founded in India include Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Considered to be a successor to the ancient Vedic religion,^[201] Hinduism has been shaped by the various schools of thoughts based on the Upanishads,^[202] the Yoga Sutras and the Bhakti movement.^[200] Buddhism originated in India in 5th century BCE and prominent early Buddhist schools, such as Theravāda and Mahāyāna, gained dominance during the Maurya Empire.^[200] Though Buddhism entered a period of gradual decline in India 5th century CE onwards,^[203] it played an influential role in shaping Indian philosophy and thought.^[200]

Indian architecture is one area that represents the diversity of Indian culture. Much of it, including notable monuments such as the Taj Mahal and other examples of Mughal architecture and South Indian architecture, comprises a blend of ancient and varied local traditions from several parts of the country and abroad. Vernacular architecture also displays notable regional variation.

Indian cuisine is characterised by a wide variety of regional styles and sophisticated use of herbs and spices. The staple foods in the region are rice (especially in the south and the east), wheat (predominantly in the north)^[204] and lentils.^[205] Spices, such as black pepper which are now consumed world wide, are originally native to the Indian subcontinent. Chili pepper, which was introduced by the Portuguese, is also widely used in Indian cuisine.^[206]

Considered to be the earliest and foremost "monument" of Indian literature, the Vedic or Sanskrit literature was developed from 1,400 BCE to 1,200 AD.^[207][208] Prominent Indian literary works of the classical era include epics such as Mahābhārata and Ramayana, dramas such as the Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Śakuntalā), and poetry such as the Mahākāvya.^[209] Developed between 600 BCE and 300 AD, the Sangam literature consists 2,381 poems and is regarded as a predecessor of Tamil literature.^{[210][211][212]} From 7th century AD to 18th century AD, India's literary traditions went through a period of drastic change because of the emergence of devotional poets such as Kabīr, Tulsīdās and Guru Nānak. This period was characterised by varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression and as a consequence, medieval Indian literary works differed significantly from classical traditions.^[213] In the 19th century, Indian writers took new interest in social questions and psychological descriptions. During the 20th century, Indian literature was heavily influenced by the works of universally acclaimed Bengali poet and novelist Rabindranath Tagore.^[214]

Society and traditions

Rabindranath Tagore - Asia's first^[215] Nobel laureate^[216] and composer of India's national anthem, played a major role in reviving several art forms such as the Manipuri.^[217]

Traditional Indian society is defined by relatively strict social hierarchy. The Indian caste system describes the social stratification and social restrictions in the Indian subcontinent, in which social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as jātis or castes.^[218] Several influential social reform movements, such as the Bramho Shômaj, the Arya Samāja and the Ramakrishna Mission, have played a pivotal role in the emancipation of Dalits (or "untouchables") and other lower-caste communities in India.^[219] However, the majority of Dalits continue to live in segregation and are often persecuted and discriminated against.^[220]

Traditional Indian family values are highly respected, and multi-generational patriarchal joint families have been the norm, although nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas.^[221] An overwhelming majority of Indians have their marriages arranged by their parents and other respected family members, with the consent of the bride and groom.^[222] Marriage is thought to be for life,^[222] and the divorce rate is extremely low.^[223] Child marriage is still a common practice, more so in rural India, with about half of women in India marrying before the legal age of 18.^[224][225]

Many Indian festivals are religious in origin, although several are celebrated irrespective of caste and creed. Some popular festivals are Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Ugadi, Thai Pongal, Holi, Onam, Vijayadashami, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, Buddha Jayanti, Moharram and Vaisakhi.^[226][227] India has three national holidays which are observed in all states and union territories — Republic Day, Independence Day and Gandhi Jayanti. Other sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are officially observed in individual states. Religious practices are an integral part of everyday life and are a very public affair.

Traditional Indian dress varies across the regions in its colours and styles and depends on various factors, including climate. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as sari for women and dhoti or lungi for men; in addition, stitched clothes such as salwar kameez for women and kurta-pyjama and European-style trousers and shirts for men, are also popular.

Music, dance, theatre and cinema

Indian music covers a wide range of traditions and regional styles. Classical music largely encompasses the two genres – North Indian Hindustani, South Indian Carnatic traditions and their various offshoots in the form of regional folk music. Regionalised forms of popular music include filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well-known form of the latter.

Indian dance too has diverse folk and classical forms. Among the well-known folk dances are the bhangra of the Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of West Bengal, Jharkhand , sambalpuri of Orissa , the ghoomar of Rajasthan and the Lavani of Maharashtra. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of Orissa and the sattriya of Assam.^[228][229]

Theatre in India often incorporates music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue.^[230] Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances, and news of social and political events, Indian theatre includes the bhavai of state of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki and ramlila of North India, the tamasha of Maharashtra, the burrakatha of Andhra Pradesh, the terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yakshagana of Karnataka.^[231] Bollywood, the commercial center of Hindi cinema in India, is the most prolific and the Indian film industry most watched film industry in the world.^[232][233] Established traditions also exist in Assamese, Bengali, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Tamil, and Telugu language cinemas.^[234]

Sport

Main article: Sport in India A 2008 Indian Premier League Twenty20 cricket match being played between the Chennai Super Kings and Kolkata Knight Riders

India's official national sport is field hockey, administered by Hockey India. The Indian hockey team won the 1975 Hockey World Cup and 8 gold, 1 silver and 2 bronze medals at the Olympic games, making it one of the world's most successful national hockey teams ever. Cricket, however, is by far the most popular sport;^[235] the India cricket team won the 1983 and the 2011 World Cups, 2007 ICC World Twenty20, and shared the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka. Cricket in India is administered by the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) and domestic competitions include the Ranji Trophy, the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the Irani Trophy and the NKP Salve Challenger Trophy. In addition, BCCI conducts the Indian Premier League, a Twenty20 competition.

India is home to several traditional sports which originated in the country and continue to remain fairly popular. These include kabaddi, kho kho, pehlwani and gilli-danda. Some of the earliest forms of Asian martial arts, such as Kalarippayattu, Yuddha, Silambam and Varma Kalai, originated in India. The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna and the Arjuna Award are India's highest awards for achievements in sports, while the Dronacharya Award is awarded for excellence in coaching.

Chess, commonly held to have originated in India, is regaining widespread popularity with the rise in the number of Indian Grandmasters.^[236] Tennis has also become increasingly popular, owing to the victories of the India Davis Cup team and the success of Indian tennis players.^[237] India has a strong presence in shooting sports, winning several medals at the Olympics, the World Shooting Championships and the Commonwealth Games.^[238][239] Other sports in which Indian sports-persons have won numerous awards or medals at international sporting events include badminton,^[240] boxing^[241] and wrestling.^[242][243] Football is a popular sport in northeastern India, West Bengal, Goa, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.^[244]

India has hosted or co-hosted several international sporting events, such as the 1951 and the 1982 Asian Games, the 1987, 1996 and 2011 Cricket World Cups, the 2003 Afro-Asian Games, the 2006 ICC Champions Trophy, the 2010 Hockey World Cup and the 2010 Commonwealth Games. Major international sporting events annually held in India include the Chennai Open, Mumbai Marathon, Delhi Half Marathon and the Indian Masters. It will also host the first Indian Grand Prix in 2011 in Greater Noida.^[245]

See also

India portal

	Book: India
Wikipedia Books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print.

Main articles: Outline of India and Index of India-related articles

Notes

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2. ^ "National Anthem – Know India portal". National Informatics Centre(NIC). 2007. http://india.gov.in/knowindia/national_anthem.php. Retrieved 31 August 2007.
3. ^ "National Song – Know India portal". National Informatics Centre(NIC). 2007. http://india.gov.in/knowindia/national_song.php. Retrieved 11 June 2009.
4. ^ "Constituent Assembly of India — Volume XII". Constituent Assembly of India: Debates. parliamentofindia.nic.in, National Informatics Centre. 24 January 1950. http://parliamentofindia.nic.in/ls/debates/vol12p1.htm. Retrieved 29 June 2007. "The composition consisting of the words and music known as Jana Gana Mana is the National Anthem of India, subject to such alterations in the words as the Government may authorise as occasion arises; and the song Vande Mataram, which has played a historic part in the struggle for Indian freedom, shall be honoured equally with Jana Gana Mana and shall have equal status with it."
5. ^ "The Union: Official Language". Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. National Informatics Centre(NIC). 2007. http://india.gov.in/knowindia/official_language.php. Retrieved 11 June 2009.
6. ^ "There's no national language in India: Gujarat High Court". Times Of India. 2007-01-06. http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-01-25/india/28148512_1_national-language-official-language-hindi. Retrieved 2011-03-29.
7. ^ ^{a b} "India at a Glance". Know India Portal. National Informatics Centre(NIC). http://india.gov.in/knowindia/india_at_a_glance.php. Retrieved 7 December 2007.
8. ^ ^{a b c d} "Provisional Population Totals - Census 2011". Indian Census Bureau 2011. http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/indiaatglance.html. Retrieved 2011-03-29.
9. ^ ^{a b c d} "India". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=534&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=49&pr.y=13. Retrieved 2011-04-21.
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11. ^ "Human Development Report 2010. Human development index trends: Table G". The United Nations. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf. Retrieved 4 November 2010.
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13. ^ Stein 2008, pp. 16–17
14. ^ Mohammada, Malika (2007). The foundations of the composite culture in India. Aakar Books, 2007. ISBN 8189833189. http://books.google.com/?id=dwzbYvQszf4C&printsec=frontcover.
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18. ^ "Hindustan". Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.. 2007. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/266465/Hindustan. Retrieved 18 June 2007.
19. ^ Singh 2009, p. 64
20. ^ Singh 2009, pp. 89–93
21. ^ Possehl 2002, pp. 24–25
22. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, pp. 21–23
23. ^ ^{a b} Singh 2009, p. 181
24. ^ Possehl 2002, p. 2
25. ^ ^{a b c} Singh 2009, p. 255
26. ^ ^{a b} Singh 2009, pp. 186–187
27. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2002, pp. 41–43
28. ^ ^{a b} Singh 2009, pp. 250–251
29. ^ Singh 2009, p. 319, Kulke & Rothermund 2002, pp. 53–54
30. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2002, pp. 54–56
31. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2002, pp. 54–56, Stein 2008, pp. 67–68
32. ^ Singh 2009, pp. 312–313
33. ^ Singh 2009, p. 300
34. ^ ^{a b} Singh 2009, p. 319
35. ^ Stein 2008, pp. 78–79, Kulke & Rothermund 2002, p. 70
36. ^ Singh 2009, p. 367, Kulke & Rothermun 2002, p. 63
37. ^ Stein 2008, pp. 89–90, Singh 2009, pp. 408–415
38. ^ Stein 2008, pp. 92–95, Singh 2009, p. 319
39. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2002, pp. 89–91, Singh 2009, p. 545
40. ^ Stein 2008, pp. 98–99
41. ^ ^{a b} Singh 2009, p. 545
42. ^ ^{a b} Stein 2008, p. 132
43. ^ ^{a b c} Stein 2008, pp. 119–120
44. ^ ^{a b} Stein 2008, pp. 121–122
45. ^ ^{a b} Stein 2008, p. 123
46. ^ ^{a b} Stein 2008, p. 124
47. ^ ^{a b} Stein 2008, pp. 127–128
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55. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 11.
56. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 8.
57. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, pp. 9–10.
58. ^ India's northernmost point is the region of the disputed Siachen Glacier in Jammu and Kashmir; however, the Government of India regards the entire region of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir (including the Northern Areas currently administered by Pakistan) to be its territory, and therefore assigns the longitude 37° 6' to its northernmost point.
59. ^ (Government of India 2007, p. 1.)
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61. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 15.
62. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 16.
63. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 17.
64. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 12.
65. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2007, p. 13.
66. ^ ^{a b} Chang 1967, pp. 391–394.
67. ^ Posey 1994, p. 118.
68. ^ Wolpert 2003, p. 4.
69. ^ Heitzman & Worden 1996, p. 97.
70. ^ Gupta, Om. Encyclopaedia of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Gyan Publishing House, 2006. ISBN 8182053897, 9788182053892.
71. ^ "Hotspots by region". Biodiversity Hotspots. Conservation International. http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/hotspots_by_region/Pages/default.aspx. Retrieved 28 February 2011.
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74. ^ Valmik Thapar, Land of the Tiger: A Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent, 1997. ISBN 978-0-520-21470-5.
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76. ^ Deforestation to blame for early summer. Times of India. 26 February 2007.
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212. ^ 1. Encyclopaedia Britannica (2008), "Tamil Literature." Quote: "Apart from literature written in classical (Indo-Aryan) Sanskrit, Tamil is the oldest literature in India. Some inscriptions on stone have been dated to the 3rd century BC, but Tamil literature proper begins around the 1st century AD. Much early poetry was religious or epic; an exception was the secular court poetry written by members of the sangam, or literary academy (see Sangam literature)." 2. Ramanujan 1985, pp. ix–x. Quote: "These poems are 'classical,' i.e. early, ancient; they are also 'classics,' i.e. works that have stood the test of time, the founding works of a whole tradition. Not to know them is not to know a unique and major poetic achievement of Indian civilisation. Early classical Tamil literature (c. 100 BC–AD 250) consists of the Eight Anthologies (Eţţuttokai), the Ten Long Poems (Pattuppāţţu), and a grammar called the Tolkāppiyam or the 'Old Composition.' ... The literature of classical Tamil later came to be known as Cankam (pronounced Sangam) literature. (pp. ix–x.)"
213. ^ Kumar Das, Sisir. A history of Indian literature, 500-1399: from courtly to the popular. Sahitya Akademi, 2006. ISSN 9788126021710 8126021713, 9788126021710.
214. ^ Datta, Amaresh. The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature (Volume Two). Sahitya Akademi, 2006. ISSN 9788126011940 8126011947, 9788126011940.
215. ^ "Rabindanath Tagore: Asia's First Nobel laureate...". Time Asia. http://www.time.com/time/asia/asia/magazine/1999/990823/tagore1.html. Retrieved October 3, 2007.
216. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Literature 1913". Nobel Prize Winners. Nobel Foundation. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1913/index.html. Retrieved October 3, 2007.
217. ^ Massey 2006, p. 186
218. ^ "India – Caste". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
219. ^ Paswan, Sanjay. Encyclopaedia of Dalits in India: Movements. Gyan Publishing House, 2002. ISSN 9788178350349 8178350343, 9788178350349.
220. ^ "UN report slams India for caste discrimination". CBC News. 2 March 2007.
221. ^ Eugene M. Makar (2007). An American's Guide to Doing Business in India.
222. ^ ^{a b} Medora, Nilufer (2003). "Mate selection in contemporary India: Love marriages versus arranged marriages". In Hamon, Raeann R. and Ingoldsby, Bron B.. Mate Selection Across Cultures. SAGE. pp. 209–230. ISBN 0-7619-2592-9.
223. ^ "Divorce Rate In India". http://www.divorcerate.org/divorce-rate-in-india.html.
224. ^ "Child marriage in India a major peril, health experts tell Lancet". Mint. http://www.livemint.com/2009/03/10224808/Child-marriage-in-India-a-majo.html. Retrieved 3 April 2011.
225. ^ "State of the World’s Children-2009". UNICEF. 2009. http://www.unicef.org/sowc09/docs/SOWC09_Table_9.pdf.
226. ^ "List of Holidays in India". http://www.indianpublicholidays.com/2009/11/list-of-holidays-in-india-2010/. Retrieved 7 July 2010.
227. ^ "18 Popular India Festivals". http://festivals.indobase.com/index.html. Retrieved 23 December 2007.
228. ^ 1. "South Asian arts: Techniques and Types of Classical Dance" From: Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12 Oct. 2007.
229. ^ Assam Times - Sattriya going global
230. ^ Lal 1998
231. ^ (Karanth 1997, p. 26) Quote: "The Yakṣagāna folk-theatre is no isolated theatrical form in India. We have a number of such theatrical traditions all around Karnataka... In far off Assam we have similar plays going on by the name of Ankia Nat, in neighouring Bengal we have the very popular Jatra plays. Maharashtra has Tamasa. (p. 26.)
232. ^ "Country profile: India". BBC. 31 March 2011. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/country_profiles/1154019.stm. Retrieved 25 May 2011.
233. ^ Dissanayake & Gokulsing 2004
234. ^ Rajadhyaksha & Willemen (editors) 1999
235. ^ Shores, Lori. Teens in India. Compass Point Books, 2007. ISBN 0756520630, 9780756520632.
236. ^ "Anand crowned World champion". Rediff. 29 October 2008. http://www.rediff.com/sports/2008/oct/29anand.htm. Retrieved 29 October 2008.
237. ^ "India Aims for Center Court". WSJ. September 11, 2009. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970203440104574406704026883502.html. Retrieved 29 September 2010.
238. ^ "Commonwealth Games 2010: India dominate shooting medals". BBC. 7 October 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/commonwealth_games/delhi_2010/9068886.stm. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
239. ^ "Sawant shoots historic gold at World Championships". TOI. Aug 9, 2010. http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-08-09/shooting/28278530_1_tejaswini-sawant-50m-rifle-world-shooting-championship. Retrieved 25 May 2011.
240. ^ "Saina Nehwal: India's badminton star and 'new woman'". BBC. 1 August 2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-10725584. Retrieved 5 October 2010.
241. ^ "Is boxing the new cricket?". Live Mint. Sep 24 2010. http://www.livemint.com/2010/09/24211250/Is-boxing-the-new-cricket.html. Retrieved 5 October 2010.
242. ^ "India makes clean sweep in Greco-Roman wrestling". TOI. Oct 5, 2010. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/cwgarticleshow/6691936.cms. Retrieved 5 October 2010.
243. ^ Xavier, Leslie (Sep 12, 2010). "Sushil Kumar wins gold in World Wrestling Championship". TOI. http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-09-12/wrestling/28272312_1_sushil-kumar-first-indian-wrestler-semifinal-bout. Retrieved 5 October 2010.
244. ^ Majumdar & Bandyopadhyay 2006, pp. 1–5.
245. ^ "Indian Grand Prix". http://www.amritt.com/Indian-Grand-Prix.html. Retrieved April 23, 2011.

References

History

• Brown, Judith M. (1994), Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198731132
• Guha, Ramchandra (2007), India after Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy, 1st edition, Picador, ISBN 9780330396103, http://books.google.com/books?id=2fvd-CaFdqYC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false
• Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2004), A History of India, 4th edition, Routledge, ISBN 0415329205, http://books.google.com/books?id=V73N8js5ZgAC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false
• Metcalf, Barbara; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2006), A Concise History of Modern India, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521682258, http://books.google.com/books?id=iuESgYNYPl0C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false
• Possehl, Gregory (2002), The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective, Rowman Altamira, ISBN 0759101728, http://books.google.com/books?id=pmAuAsi4ePIC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false
• Singh, Upinder (2009), A History of Ancient and Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Delhi: Pearson Longman, ISBN 9788131716779, http://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false
• Spear, Percival (1990), A History of India, 2, New Delhi and London: Penguin Books, ISBN 0140138366
• Stein, Burton (2008), A History of India, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 0631205462, http://books.google.com/books?id=SXdVS0SzQSAC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false
• Thapar, Romila (1990), A History of India, 1, New Delhi and London: Penguin Books, ISBN 0140138358
• Thapar, Romila (2004), Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300, University of California Press, ISBN 0520242254, http://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false
• Wolpert, Stanley (2003), A New History of India, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195166787

Geography

• Dikshit, K.R.; Joseph E. Schwartzberg (2007). "India: The Land". Encyclopædia Britannica. pp. 1–29. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India. Retrieved 29 September 2007.
• Government of India (2007). India Yearbook 2007. Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting. ISBN 81-230-1423-6.
• Heitzman, J.; R.L. Worden (1996). India: A Country Study. Library of Congress (Area Handbook Series). ISBN 0-8444-0833-6.
• Posey, C.A (1994). The Living Earth Book of Wind and Weather. Reader's Digest Association. ISBN 0-89577-625-1.

Flora and fauna

• Ali, Salim; Ripley, S. Dillon (1995). A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford University Press. Colour plates by John Henry Dick. ISBN 0-19-563732-1
• Blatter, E.; Millard, Walter S. (1997). Some Beautiful Indian Trees. Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford University Press. 30 colour plates. ISBN 0-19-562162-X
• Israel, Samuel; Sinclair (editors), Toby (2001). Indian Wildlife. Discovery Channel and APA Publications. ISBN 981-234-555-8
• Prater, S. H. (1971). The book of Indian Animals. Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford University Press. Colour plates by Paul Barruel. ISBN 0-19-562169-7
• Rangarajan, Mahesh (editor) (1999). Oxford Anthology of Indian Wildlife: Volume 1, Hunting and Shooting. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-564592-8
• Rangarajan, Mahesh (editor) (1999). Oxford Anthology of Indian Wildlife: Volume 2, Watching and Conserving. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-564593-6
• Tritsch, Mark F. (2001). Wildlife of India. London: Harper Collins Publishers. ISBN 0-00-711062-6

Culture

• Dissanayake, Wimal K.; Gokulsing, Moti (2004). Indian Popular Cinema: A Narrative of Cultural Change. Trentham Books. p. 161. ISBN 1-85856-329-1. http://books.google.com/?id=_plssuFIar8C&dq
• Johnson, W. J. (translator and editor) (1998). The Sauptikaparvan of the Mahabharata: The Massacre at Night. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press (Oxford World's Classics). ISBN 978-0-19-282361-8
• Kālidāsa; Johnson (editor), W. J. (2001). The Recognition of Śakuntalā: A Play in Seven Acts. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-283911-4
• Karanth, K. Shivarama (1997). Yakṣagāna. (Forward by H. Y. Sharada Prasad). Abhinav Publications. ISBN 81-7017-357-4
• Kiple, Kenneth F.; Ornelas, Kriemhild Coneè, eds (2000). The Cambridge World History of Food. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-40216-6
• Lal, Ananda (1998). Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-564446-8
• MacDonell, Arthur Anthony (2004). A History of Sanskrit Literature. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1-4179-0619-7
• Majumdar, Boria; Bandyopadhyay, Kausik (2006). A Social History Of Indian Football: Striving To Score. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-34835-8
• Massey, Reginald (2006). India's Dances. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 81-7017-434-1
• Ramanujan, A. K. (1985). Poems of Love and War: From the Eight Anthologies and the Ten Long Poems of Classical Tamil. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-05107-7. http://books.google.com/?id=nIybE0HRvdQC&dq
• Rajadhyaksha, Ashish; Willemen (editors), Paul (1999). Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema, 2nd revised edition. University of California Press and British Film Institute. p. 652. ISBN 978-0-85170-669-6
• Vilanilam, John V. (2005). Mass Communication in India: A Sociological Perspective. Sage Publications. ISBN 0-7619-3372-7

External links

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• Government of India – Official government portal (in English)
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• Wikimedia Atlas of India
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